The Psychodynamic Approach (Freud)

Knowledge & Understanding

Behaviour is driven by both conscious and unconscious motivations according to Freud’s psychodynamic approach.

The Structure of the Tripartite Personality

The personality is composed of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id, which operates from birth to around 18 months, is driven by the pleasure principle and embodies our basic wants and desires. The ego, which develops between 18 months and 3 years, is guided by the reality principle and balances the needs of the id, the superego, and the external world. The superego, forming between the ages of 3 and 6 years, is governed by the morality principle, which includes feelings of guilt and the internalisation of moral authority and societal rules, culminating in the formation of the ego ideal, which dictates how we should behave.

Defence Mechanisms

Defence mechanisms are strategies employed by the ego to manage conflicts between the id and reality, as well as conflicts between the id and the superego. These mechanisms also distort reality to reduce anxiety. Some examples include displacement, which involves redirecting unacceptable drives onto more acceptable targets; denial, where an individual refuses to accept that an event has occurred; and repression, where distressing memories are pushed into the unconscious mind, away from conscious awareness.

Psychosexual Stages

Freud outlined several psychosexual stages including:

• The oral stage, from birth to 18 months, where the infant’s pleasure centres are the mouth.
• The anal stage, from 18 months to 3 years, is marked by conflicts between the retention and expulsion of faeces, reflecting a child’s first experience with control.
• The phallic stage, from 3 to 6 years, is where pleasure is derived from genital stimulation. Boys experience the Oedipus complex, desiring their mother and viewing their father as a rival, which leads to feelings of guilt as the superego develops. Girls experience the Electra complex, characterised by penis envy, hatred towards the mother, and guilt, although they identify with the mother but do not fully overcome these feelings, resulting in a lesser moral development according to Freud.
• The latency stage, from 6 years to puberty, is characterised by dormant sexual feelings.
• The genital stage, from puberty onwards, focuses psychosexual energy on relationships with others.

Case Study: Little Hans

In the case study of Little Hans, a young boy developed a phobia of horses, which Freud interpreted as a displacement of the boy’s repressed fear of his father. His mother had threatened castration for playing with his genitals, which Hans then connected with the death of a horse that he associated with his father due to similar physical features. The death of the horse led Hans to fear that his father might also die, which was exacerbated by his feelings of guilt and fear from his ongoing Oedipal conflict.

Analysis & Evaluation

The psychodynamic approach offers a comprehensive explanation in the Little Hans case, illustrating how unconscious processes and defence mechanisms operate during the phallic stage. However, the approach is criticised for its lack of scientific rigour. It is based on unfalsifiable theories of the unconscious mind and relies heavily on individual case studies, which cannot be generalised. Additionally, Freud’s theories often reflect retrospective and subjective analyses, particularly from his studies on women and dream analysis. Despite these limitations, the practical applications of psychoanalysis, evidenced by significant improvements in patients treated for anxiety and depression, support the relevance of Freud’s theories. Large-scale studies, such as those by De Maat et al., indicate that psychoanalytical therapy can lead to substantial improvements, suggesting some validity to Freud’s concepts despite the criticisms.

Classical Conditioning

Knowledge

Classical conditioning is based on the premise that we are born as a ‘tabula rasa’ or blank slate, emphasising a learning approach to behaviour.

Pavlov’s Dogs

Ivan Pavlov conducted repeated measures laboratory experiments with dogs, where a bell was rung every time food was presented, eventually leading to the dogs salivating at the sound of the bell alone, even in the absence of food. This phenomenon also demonstrated extinction when the association between the bell and the food was broken. The experiment, with its objective and replicable design, showcases high internal validity, confirming a causal relationship. However, the extrapolation of results from dogs to humans and ethical concerns are points of critique.

Little Albert

John Watson and Rosalie Raynor’s experiment with Little Albert involved exposing the child to a loud noise when a rat was presented, which conditioned fear of the rat. This experiment also utilised a repeated measures design.

Analysis & Evaluation

Classical conditioning has demonstrated strong explanatory power through experiments like Pavlov’s dogs and the Little Albert study, indicating that conditioning can explain some aspects of human behaviour. However, the theory is criticised for not accounting for cognitive factors, such as those suggested by social learning theory (SLT), which proposes that learning involves active mental processes. Nevertheless, classical conditioning remains relevant, particularly in therapies like systematic desensitisation for phobias, where conditioned responses are altered to reduce fear.

Operant Conditioning

Knowledge

Operant conditioning, another learning theory, suggests that behaviours are influenced by their consequences. It also starts from the premise that we are born as a blank slate. This theory identifies types of consequences such as reinforcers, which strengthen behaviour, and includes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.

Skinner’s Box

B.F. Skinner’s experiments with rats in a controlled environment (known as Skinner’s box) demonstrated operant conditioning. Rats learned to press a lever to receive food (positive reinforcement) or to stop an unpleasant noise (negative reinforcement). If pressing the lever resulted in an electric shock, it served as a punishment. The experiments highlighted the importance of reinforcement schedules in maintaining learned behaviours and demonstrated high internal validity but faced similar criticisms regarding the extrapolation to human behaviour.

Analysis & Evaluation

Operant conditioning provides a robust framework for understanding behaviour modification, evidenced by Skinner’s experiments and applications such as the two-process model for phobias and token economies in psychiatric settings. Despite its strengths, the theory is considered incomplete by those who advocate for SLT, which incorporates cognitive processes that operant conditioning overlooks.

Social Learning Theory

Knowledge

Social learning theory (SLT) builds on behavioural theories by incorporating cognitive processes known as mediational processes. These processes mediate the relationship between environmental stimuli and an individual’s response, including factors like attention, retention, and motivation.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiments

Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments involved children who were exposed to adult models exhibiting aggressive or non-aggressive behaviours. The children imitated the aggression they observed, especially when the model was of the same sex or when aggression was rewarded. These experiments, which were methodologically robust with good inter-rater reliability, emphasised the role of observational learning and the effects of vicarious reinforcement.

Analysis & Evaluation

Bandura’s studies support the strong influence of observed behaviours on learning, showing identification with role models and the impact of rewards on mimicking behaviour. However, SLT has been criticised for not adequately considering biological factors that may predispose individuals to certain behaviours, such as inherent differences in aggression influenced by biological factors like testosterone levels. Despite this, the practical applications of SLT, including its use in setting age restrictions on media content following real-life violent incidents, highlight its significant real-life relevance.

The Humanistic Approach

Knowledge

The humanistic approach views individuals as whole beings with free will, emphasising a holistic and idiographic approach to understanding human behaviour.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow proposed that human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic physiological needs and progressing towards self-actualisation, a state of realising one’s full potential. The lower levels represent deficiency needs, while self-actualisation is seen as a growth need.

Rogers’ Focus on the Self

Carl Rogers emphasised the importance of self-worth and positive regard from others for achieving self-actualisation. He introduced the concept of congruence, where an individual’s self-image should align with their ideal self. Rogers also highlighted the role of unconditional positive regard and conditions of worth in personal development.

Person-Centred Counselling

In person-centred counselling, clients are seen as experts on their own state and are guided by therapists to find their own solutions in a non-directive manner. Effective therapy is characterised by the therapist’s empathy and unconditional positive regard, which fosters the client’s self-worth.

Analysis & Evaluation

The humanistic approach’s holistic perspective is credited with providing deep insights into individual behaviour and mental health, effectively illustrated by the success of person-centred counselling. However, it may suffer from cultural biases, as studies have shown that different cultures may prioritise different needs, suggesting that the approach might not universally apply. Nonetheless, the broad applicability and effectiveness of humanistic principles in therapeutic settings are well-documented and significant.